黄士元:如何吸纳新近科学研究成果完善我国目击证人辨认制度?
司法兰亭会:倡导对法律人的人文关怀,促进法律共同体理性沟通
参考文献:
Watkins v. Sowders, 449 U.S. 341, 352 (1981) (Brennan, J., dissenting).
See Gary Wells et al.,Eyewitness Identification Procedures: Recommendations for Line-ups and Photospreads, 22 Law and Human Behavior (1998), p.605.
http://studylib.net/doc/11561478/supreme-court-of-new-jersey-a-8-08-september-term-2008, 2017年12月20日访问.
https://www.innocenceproject.org/causes/eyewitness-misidentification/,2017年12月20日访问.
https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Documents/1600_Exonerations.pdf,2017年12月20日访问.
参见郭国松:《26年前一起“强奸案”的洗冤实录》,载法制网,http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/zmbm/content/2010-07/22/content_2201894.htm?node=20349,2017年12月20日访问。
最早作出这一分类的是Gary Wells教授,See Gary Wells, Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research: System Variables and Estimator Variables, 36 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1978),p.1548.
“武器聚焦效应”(weapon focus)是指在罪犯持有凶器时,目击证人往往会将注意力集中于凶器,而非罪犯的面部特征,这会影响其在随后的辨认中准确指认出罪犯。关于“武器聚焦效应”对目击证人的影响,See Nancy Steblay, A Meta-Analytic Review of the Weapon Focus Effect, 16 Law and Human Behavior (1992) ,pp.413–424;Jonathan Fawcett et al., Of Guns and Geese: A Meta-Analytic Review of the “Weapon Focus” Literature, 19 Psychology, Crime & Law (2013) ,pp.35–66.
“他种族效应”(cross-race effect)是指,相比于辨认与本人同种族的罪犯,目击证人在辨认与本人不同种族的罪犯时更容易出错。See Christian A. Meissner et al., Thirty Years of Investigating the Own-Race Bias in Memory for Faces: A Meta-Analytic Review, 7 Psychology, Public Policy, and Law (2001), p.3.
See Kenneth A. Deffenbacher et al., A Meta-Analytic Review of the Effects of High Stress on Eyewitness Memory, 28 Law and Human Behavior (2004), p.687.
比较典型的实验室研究是给被试看一段“犯罪”录像(或者让被试当场目击一场“犯罪”),然后让其从多张照片(或者多名真人)中指认出“罪犯”。由于“犯罪”为研究者所“导演”,研究者可以判断被试的指认是否准确。
See Gary Wells et al., Double- Blind Photo Lineups Using Actual Eyewitnesses: An Experimental Test of a Sequential Versus Simultaneous Lineup Procedure, 39 Law and Human Behavior (2015), p.13.
See Geoffrey Gaulkin, Report of the SpecialMaster on New Jersey v. Henderson (June 18, 2010), pp.9,72,available at https://www.judiciary.state.nj.us/pressrel/HENDERSON%20FINAL%20BRIEF%20.PDF%20(00621142).PDF, 2017年12月20日访问; State v. Henderson, 27 A.3d 872, 916 (N.J. 2011). 在美国,改进辨认程序的努力有时会遇到如下质疑:关于辨认的科学研究还在进行之中,在科学界尚无定论的情况下,改革不宜遽然而行。作为回应,美国科学院(the National Academy of Sciences)成立了专门委员会,对已有科学研究成果进行了系统、全面地评估,并于2014年10月发布了名为《发现罪犯:对目击证人辨认的评估》的研究报告。报告发现,就目击证人辨认问题,学者们所取得的共识远远大于存在的分歧。基于已有研究,报告提出了十余项改革建议:(1)对所有执法人员进行培训,使其了解与感知和记忆有关的研究成果、影响目击证人辨认准确性的因素以及有助于减少辨认错误的实践做法;(2)辨认应采用“双盲程序”;(3)辨认前应告知目击证人“罪犯可能不在队列中”,“无论目击证人是否指认出罪犯,侦查都会继续进行下去”;(4)应将辨认时目击证人的确信程度记录下来;(5)应对辨认过程进行录像;(6)法官应对辨认的可信性进行庭前审查,以决定辨认结果能否进入法庭呈示给陪审团;(7)目击证人当庭指认罪犯的,应保证陪审员知晓之前进行辨认的情形以及当时目击证人的确信程度;(8)法官有权决定是否允许专家证人就影响目击证人辨认准确性的因素出庭作证;(9)法官可以就影响目击证人辨认准确性的因素向陪审团发布指令,以此作为专家证人出庭作证的替代措施;(10)加强各相关司法实务部门和研究人员的合作。See The National Research Council, Identifying the Culprit: Assessing Eyewitness Identification,Washington D.C:The National Academies Press, 2009, pp.105-119.
关于所列各州的辨认立法、辨认指南,参见https://www.innocenceproject.org/eyewitness-identification-reform/,2017年12月20日访问。
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Eyewitness Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement (Washington, DC, 1999).
https://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/U.S._Justice_Department_directive_to_federal_agencies_-Procedures_for_Photo_Arrays_Issued_January_2017.pdf, 2017年12月20日访问.
参见宋维彬:“论刑事辨认笔录的证据能力”,载《当代法学》2017年第2期;刘广三、李洪杰:“论刑事诉讼中辨认的真实性”,载《法学杂志》2016年第7期;陈晓云:《目击证人辨认问题研究——法学与心理学之双重视角》,中国检察出版社出版2015年版;王守安、董坤:“美国错案防治的多重机制”,载《法学》2014年第4期;王佳:《刑事辨认原理与规制》,北京大学出版社2011年版;肖承海:《多维视角下的刑事辨认研究》,中国政法大学2011年法学博士论文;张泽涛:“目击者指证错误的原因分析及其防范”,载《中国刑事法杂志》2002年第4期;黄维智:“目击证人辨认的可信性及其程序保障”,载《社会科学研究》2004年第6期;李安:“辨认程序与辨认结论正确性的审查”,载《中国刑事法杂志》2004年第6期;韩旭:“辨认笔录证据能力问题研究——以新《刑事诉讼法》为视角”,载《证据科学》2012年第4期。
See Robert Rosenthal et al., Interpersonal Expectancy Effects: The First 345 Studies, 3 Behavioral and Brain Sciences (1978), p.377. 这在某种程度上也可以说是一种“自我实现预言”(self-fulfilling prophecy)。
See Sarah M Greathouse et al., Instruction Bias and Lineup Presentation Moderate the Effects of Administrator Knowledge on Eyewitness Identification,33 Law and Human Behavior (2009), p.71.
See Patrick M Wall,Eye-witness Identification in Criminal Cases, Springfield, Illinois: C.C. Thomas,1965, p.26.
See Carla Maclea et al., Post-Identification Feedback Effects: Investigators and Evaluators, 25 Applied Cognitive Psychology (201l), p.739; Nancy Steblay et al., The Eyewitness Post Identification Feedback Effect 15 Years Later: Theoretical and Policy Implications, 20 Psychology, Public Policy, and Law (2014), p.1.
See Daniel B. Wright et al., Postidentification Feedback Affects Real Eyewitnesses, 18 Psychological Science (2007), pp.172–178.
See Gary Wells et al., “Good, You Identified the Suspect”: Feedback to Eyewitnesses Distorts Their Reports of the Witnessing Experience, 83 Journal of Applied Psychology (1998), p.374.
《公安机关办理刑事案件程序规定》第251条和《人民检察院刑事诉讼规则(试行)》第260条都规定,辨认时,“不得给辨认人任何暗示”。
Gary Wells et al., Eyewitness Identification Reforms: Are Suggestiveness-Induced Hits and Guesses True Hits?,7 Perspectives on Psychological Science (2012), p.265.
不让进行辨认的目击证人知道嫌疑人是谁是理所当然的。如果辨认主持者给目击证人说,“第二个被辨认者是我们在犯罪现场抓到的嫌疑人,你看他是否就是你看到的罪犯?”,则辨认结果的可靠性会因辨认主持者的强烈诱导而大受影响。
据研究,在12种常见的不规范辨认行为中,发生率最高的两种是“嫌疑人被不适当地突出”和“辨认主持者对目击证人进行不当暗示”。参见胡志风:“我国侦查辨认制度实施状况调查报告”,载《河南社会科学》2015年第6期,第53-54页。
See Geoffrey Gaulkin, Report of the SpecialMaster on New Jersey v. Henderson (June 18, 2010), pp.9,72,available at https://www.judiciary.state.nj.us/pressrel/HENDERSON%20FINAL%20BRIEF%20.PDF%20(00621142).PDF, 2017年12月20日访问; State v. Henderson, 27 A.3d 872, 916 (N.J. 2011),pp.10,25,27.
See Gary Wells, The Psychology of Line Identifications, 14 Journal of Applied Social Psychology (1984), p. 89-103.
See Gary Wells, The Psychology of Line Identifications, 14 Journal of Applied Social Psychology (1984), p. 89-103.
See Ryan J. Fitzgerald et al., The Effect of Suspect-Filler Similarity on Eyewitness Identification Decisions: A Meta-Analysis,19 Psychology Public Policy and Law (2013), pp.151-164.
See Gary Wells et al.,Eyewitness Identification Procedures: Recommendations for Line-ups and Photospreads, 22 Law and Human Behavior (1998), pp.603-647.
See Dawn E. McQuiston,Validity of the Mock witness Paradigm: Testing the Assumptions,26 Law and Human Behavior(2002), p.440.“不适当地突出”不仅包括生理特征方面的突出(如嫌疑人是唯一有络腮胡子的被辨认者),还包括发型、服饰等方面的突出。如果是照片辨认,还包括照片拍摄角度、拍摄手法、拍摄背景等方面的与众不同。莫然、刘婷曾对我国1700起真实案件的照片辨认以“模拟证人法”进行实验室研究。研究发现,“模拟证人”仅凭目击证人的描述,即可在52%的案件中指认出嫌疑人,由此可见司法实践中“不适当突出”问题已非常严重。参见莫然、刘婷:“实证视角下我国目击辨认程序中的暗示行为及其规制”,载《中国人民公安大学学报(社会科学版)》2016年第3期,第58页。
See Gary Wells et al,Eyewitness Identification: The Importance of Lineup Models, 99 Psychological Bulletin (1986),pp.320-329.
See Nancy Steblay,Scientific Advances in Eyewitness Identification Evidence,41 William Mitchell Law Review (2015),p.1114.
英国规定真人辨认中被辨认者的人数不得少于9人,照片辨认中被辨认者的人数不得少于13人;美国要求被辨认者的人数应是7至10人。参见周庆:“呈现方式与陪衬人数对目击者照片辨认准确性的影响”,载《福建警察学院学报2013年第3期,第32页。
See Nancy Steblay, Social Influence in Eyewitness Recall: A Meta-Analytic Review of Lineup Instruction Effects, 21 Law and Human Behavior (1997), p.283.
See Roderick Lindsay et al., Improving Eyewitness Identifications from Lineups: Simultaneous versus Sequential Lineup Presentation, 70 Journal of Applied Psychology (1985), pp.558-559. 顺序辨认中的目击证人在对第一位被辨认者进行辨认时,由于只看到这一位被辨认者,其只能进行绝对判断;在此之后,目击证人虽然可能将正在观察的被辨认者与已经看到的其他被辨认者进行比较,但是,由于其他被辨认者不在眼前,也由于不能确定以后看到的被辨认者会不会更像罪犯,目击证人还是会更加依赖绝对判断。
See Nancy Steblay et al., Eyewitness Accuracy rates in Sequential and Simultaneous Lineup Presentations: A Meta-Analytical Comparison, 25 Law and Human Behavior (2001), p.459.
See Nancy Steblay et al., Seventy-Two Tests of the Sequential Lineup Superiority Effect: A Meta-Analysis and Policy Discussion, 17 Psychology, Public Policy, and Law (2011), p.123.
See Matthew A. Palmer et al., Sequential Lineup Presentation Promotes Less-Biased Criterion Setting but Does Not Improve Discriminability, 36 Law and Human Behavior (2012), p.247-253.
See Gary Wells et al., Double- Blind Photo Lineups Using Actual Eyewitnesses: An Experimental Test of a Sequential Versus Simultaneous Lineup Procedure, 39 Law and Human Behavior (2015), pp. 4-5,11-13.
See N.C. Gen. Stat.§ 15A-284.52 (West 2007); Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Study Group on Eyewitness Identification, Report and Recommendations to the Justices (2013), available at http://www.mass.gov/courts/docs/sjc/docs/eyewitness-evidence-report-2013.pdf, 2017年12月20日访问.
International Association of Chiefs of Police, National Summit on Wrongful Convictions: Building a Systemic Approach to Prevent Wrongful Convictions 14 (2013), available at https://www.bja.gov/publications/iacp-wrongful_convictions_summit_report.pdf, 2017年12月20日访问.
See Dawn McQuiston-Surrett et al., Sequential vs. Simultaneous Lineups: A Review of Methods, Data, and Theory, 12 Public Policy, and Law (2006), pp.137–169; Scott D. Gronlund et al., Robustness of the Sequential Lineup Advantage, 15 Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied (2009), pp.142-150; David Dobolyi et al., Eyewitness Confidence in Simultaneous and Sequential Lineups: A Criterion Shift Account for Sequential Mistaken Identification Overconfidence, I9 Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied (2013),p.345;Karen Amendola et al., The Role of Site Variance in the American Judicature Society Field Study Comparing Simultaneous and Sequential Lineups, 33 Journal of Quantitative Criminology (2017),pp.1-19.
See Geoffrey Gaulkin, Report of the SpecialMaster on New Jersey v. Henderson (June 18, 2010), pp.9,72,available at https://www.judiciary.state.nj.us/pressrel/HENDERSON%20FINAL%20BRIEF%20.PDF%20(00621142).PDF, 2017年12月20日访问; State v. Henderson, 27 A.3d 872, 916 (N.J. 2011), p.118; https://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/U.S._Justice_Department_directive_to_federal_agencies_-Procedures_for_Photo_Arrays_Issued_January_2017.pdf, 2017年12月20日访问.
根据美国《联邦证据规则》第801条 ( d) ( 1) ( C) 款,庭前辨认笔录并非传闻证据,在符合以下条件时可以作为认定案件事实的实质证据:(1)目击证人出庭作证;(2)目击证人在法庭之上就庭前指认接受了交叉询问。
See Kenneth A. Deffenbacher, et al., Mugshot Exposure Effects: Retroactive Interference, Mugshot Commitment, Source Confusion, and Unconscious Transference, 30 Law and Human Behavior(2006),p.299.
See Gunter Koehnken et al., Forensic Applications of Line-up Research, in Psychological Issues in Eyewitness Identification (Siegfried L Sporer et al. eds., 1996), p.218.
即使目击证人不能指认出罪犯是谁,辨认程序也应被制作笔录,因为目击证人不能指认嫌疑人为罪犯本身即是对嫌疑人有利的证据。我国当前司法实践普遍存在不对此类辨认程序制作笔录的情形。
See David Dunning et al., Automaticity and Eyewitness Accuracy: A 10 - to - 12 Second Rule for Distinguishing Accurate from Inaccurate Positive Identifications, 87 Journal of Applied Psychology (2002), pp.951-962.
See Nathan Weber et al., Eyewitness Identification and Response Latency: The Unruly 10-12 s Rule, 10 Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, (2004), pp.139-147.
有研究认为,目击证人对辨认结果的确信程度与辨认结果的可靠性之间仅具有较弱的正相关性;也有研究认为,二者具有很强的正相关性。See Kevin Krug, The Relationship between Confidence and Accuracy: Current Thoughts of the Literature and a New Area of Research, 3 Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice (2007),pp. 9-10.
See Robert K. Bothwell et al., Correlation of Eyewitness Accuracy and Confidence: Optimality Hypothesis Revisited,72 Journal of Applied Psychology (1987), pp.691-695.
据统计,美国五分之一的执法机构对照片辨认进行录音、录像,24%的执法机构对真人列队辨认进行录音、录像。See Police Executive Research Foundation, A National Survey of Eyewitness Identification Procedures in Law Enforcement Agencies, p.88, Available at https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/242617.pdf, 2017年12月20日访问。 美国科学院认为,对辨认程序进行录像应成为美国执法机构的标准做法。See Geoffrey Gaulkin, Report of the SpecialMaster on New Jersey v. Henderson (June 18, 2010), pp.9,72,available at https://www.judiciary.state.nj.us/pressrel/HENDERSON%20FINAL%20BRIEF%20.PDF%20(00621142).PDF, 2017年12月20日访问; State v. Henderson, 27 A.3d 872, 916 (N.J. 2011),p.108.
388 U.S.218,236-239 (1967). 在United States v. Ash案中,美国联邦最高法院以照片列队辨认所面临的风险不像真人列队辨认那样严重为由,拒绝将联邦宪法第六修正案的“获得律师帮助权”条款适用于照片列队辨认。See United States v. Ash, 413 U.S. 300 (1973).
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